TACA-26 自闭症生物医学治疗的简化方法
本帖最后由 StarCare 于 2026-5-15 16:41 编辑TACA-26 自闭症生物医学治疗的简化方法
A Simplified Biomedical Approach
作者：Dan Rossignol, MD, FAAFP
原文链接：https://tacanow.org/family-resources/
---
关于作者
Dan Rossignol, MD, FAAFP 在弗吉尼亚医学院获得医学博士学位，并在弗吉尼亚大学(UVa)完成了家庭医学住院医师培训。他是UVa家庭医学的前临床助理教授，目前是国际儿童发展资源中心的医生。他是两个自闭症儿童的父亲。他撰写了几篇论文，包括两篇关于高压氧治疗(HBOT)在自闭症中的应用，一篇关于尿卟啉在自闭症中的应用，以及另一篇关于自闭症线粒体功能障碍的研究。他是国际高压氧协会和USAAA的医学顾问，目前参与研究寻找治疗自闭症炎症、氧化应激、胃肠道问题和重金属毒性的方法。
---
引言
英文原文：
In 2002, my older son, Isaiah, was diagnosed with autism. At the time I had been practicing as a family physician for about five years. Prior to his diagnosis, Isaiah loved to get down on the floor and spin objects, and I thought it was cool, so I helped him. He also used to shake his hands back and forth in the air for hours. When I tried to shake my hands like him, I tired out in a couple of minutes. I couldn't figure out how he could do it for hours! He had a significant speech delay and walked very late. However, despite all of these problems, I did not have a CLUE that he had autism.
中文翻译：
2002年，我的大儿子以赛亚被诊断为自闭症。当时我已经作为家庭医生执业大约五年了。在他被诊断之前，以赛亚喜欢趴在地上旋转物体，我觉得这很酷，所以我还帮他。他还会在空中来回摇晃双手几个小时。当我试着像他那样摇晃我的手时，几分钟我就累了。我不明白他怎么能做到几个小时！他有明显的语言发育延迟，走路也很晚。然而，尽管有所有这些问题，我完全没有意识到他有自闭症。
---
英文原文：
I remember when my wife and I went to his psychological evaluation to determine what was wrong with him. He was evaluated by a pediatric neurologist and several psychologists, and we spent the morning with him during the testing. We were then told to go to lunch while the team met to determine a diagnosis. I remember as we sat in McDonalds eating French fries and cheeseburgers that my wife and I discussed that maybe the team would say he had "autistic tendencies." It was quite a shock to us when Isaiah was actually diagnosed with autism! For the first year after his diagnosis, my wife started looking into biomedical treatments, which I considered "quackery." I remember asking some pediatric neurologists about the gluten-free/casein-free (GF/CF) diet and being told that NO evidence existed in the medical literature as to whether or not this diet worked.
中文翻译：
我记得当我和妻子去参加他的心理评估以确定他有什么问题时。他接受了一位小儿神经科医生和几位心理学家的评估，我们在测试期间和他一起度过了上午。然后我们被告知去吃午饭，而团队开会确定诊断。我记得当我们在麦当劳吃薯条和芝士汉堡时，我和妻子讨论团队可能会说他有"自闭倾向"。当以赛亚真正被诊断为自闭症时，我们非常震惊！在他被诊断后的第一年，我的妻子开始研究生物医学治疗，我认为那是"江湖骗术"。我记得问过几位小儿神经科医生关于无麸质/无酪蛋白(GF/CF)饮食，被告知医学文献中没有证据表明这种饮食是否有效。
---
英文原文：
When I finally realized that I needed to look into the medical literature for myself, I discovered some studies which reported that the GF/CF diet appeared to be beneficial in some children with autism. Shortly after this, my second son, Joshua, was also diagnosed with autism. I now realize that God allowed us to have two children with autism to give me a new career (taking care of children with autism) and to give us the ability to help other parents who also have children with autism.
中文翻译：
当我最终意识到我需要自己查阅医学文献时，我发现了一些研究报告，指出GF/CF饮食似乎对一些自闭症儿童有益。此后不久，我的第二个儿子约书亚也被诊断为自闭症。我现在意识到上帝让我们有两个自闭症孩子，是为了给我一个新的职业（照顾自闭症儿童），并让我们有能力帮助其他也有自闭症孩子的父母。
---
诊断后的步骤
英文原文：
Now that I look back on things, I realize that we (me more so than my wife) wasted precious time because I didn't know what to do for my child. And I am a physician, and my wife is a nurse practitioner! Fortunately, there are currently many resources available to parents of a child with autism such as websites, books, and conferences. However, navigating through all of these possibilities can be daunting. The purpose of this article is to empower you, as a parent of a child with autism, by providing a starting point for biomedical treatments for your child.
中文翻译：
现在回想起来，我意识到我们（尤其是我比妻子更甚）浪费了宝贵的时间，因为我不知道该为我的孩子做什么。而我是一名医生，我的妻子是一名执业护士！幸运的是，目前有很多资源可供自闭症儿童的父母使用，如网站、书籍和会议。然而，在所有这些可能性中导航可能会令人望而生畏。本文的目的是通过为您的孩子提供生物医学治疗的起点，来帮助您作为自闭症儿童的父母。
---
自闭症的核心医学问题
英文原文：
Initially, the diagnosis of autism or other forms of autism, such as pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS, also called high-functioning autism or mild autism), will generally come from a developmental pediatrician or a neurologist. Most neurologists will perform genetic testing (including chromosomal analysis and checking for fragile X syndrome), an MRI scan (to exclude some type of brain structural problem), and an EEG (to look for seizure activity). An EEG is especially important because newer studies are reporting that about 60% or more of children with autism have subclinical seizure activity (subclinical means that you are not aware of this seizure activity). We find significant improvements, especially in speech, in some children with autism when we treat seizures with medication.
中文翻译：
最初，自闭症或其他形式的自闭症诊断，如广泛性发育障碍-未另行指定(PDD-NOS，也称为高功能自闭症或轻度自闭症)，通常来自发育儿科医生或神经科医生。大多数神经科医生会进行基因检测（包括染色体分析和检查脆性X综合征）、MRI扫描（排除某种类型的脑部结构问题）和EEG（检查癫痫活动）。EEG特别重要，因为较新的研究报告称，约60%或更多的自闭症儿童有亚临床癫痫活动（亚临床意味着您没有意识到这种癫痫活动）。我们发现，当我们用药物治疗癫痫时，一些自闭症儿童有显著改善，特别是在语言方面。
---
英文原文：
After the initial diagnosis, there are specific laboratory tests that can be very helpful in either checking for other medical conditions (that could be exacerbating the autistic behavior) or defining underlying biomedical problems. Since autism is diagnosed based upon examination of the child's behavior, the actual diagnosis does not point to the underlying cause(s) of the disorder. We find that some of the core problems in autism include toxicity (including elevated levels of heavy metals, pesticides, and other chemicals), inflammation (potentially in the gastrointestinal tract and brain), oxidative stress (damage to tissue caused by free radicals, which are neutralized by antioxidants such as vitamins C and E), impaired glutathione production (which is the body's main natural detoxifier and antioxidant), and impaired mitochondrial function (which are responsible for producing ATP, or energy).
中文翻译：
初步诊断后，有特定的实验室检查可能非常有帮助，可以检查其他医疗状况（可能加剧自闭症行为）或确定潜在的生物医学问题。由于自闭症是根据检查儿童的行为来诊断的，实际诊断并不指向疾病的潜在原因。我们发现自闭症的一些核心问题包括毒性（包括重金属、农药和其他化学物质水平升高）、炎症（可能在胃肠道和大脑中）、氧化应激（由自由基引起的组织损伤，可被抗氧化剂如维生素C和E中和）、谷胱甘肽产生受损（身体主要的天然解毒剂和抗氧化剂）和线粒体功能受损（负责产生ATP或能量）。
---
初始实验室检测
英文原文：
In many cases, a physician will need to order these tests for you.
中文翻译：
在许多情况下，医生需要为您开具这些检查。
---
1. 全血细胞计数(CBC)和综合代谢面板(CMP)
英文原文：
The Complete Blood Count (CBC) and Comprehensive Metabolic Panel (CMP) check for anemia, platelet count (a high count is consistent with inflammation), and liver and kidney function.
中文翻译：
全血细胞计数(CBC)和综合代谢面板(CMP)检查贫血、血小板计数（高计数与炎症一致）以及肝肾功能。
---
2. 甲状腺功能
英文原文：
Thyroid. We find a significant number of children with autism who have hypothyroidism, which can mimic some of the symptoms of autism and impair development. A simple blood test called TSH can check for this problem.
中文翻译：
甲状腺。我们发现相当数量的自闭症儿童患有甲状腺功能减退症，这可能模仿自闭症的一些症状并损害发育。一个简单的血液测试叫TSH可以检查这个问题。
---
3. 铁水平
英文原文：
Iron deficiency can cause inattention and concentration problems. Low iron is also linked to lowered IQ. Iron supplementation in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who have low iron levels has been shown to improve attention compared to a placebo, and iron supplementation in children with autism has been shown to improve sleep.
中文翻译：
缺铁会导致注意力不集中和专注力问题。低铁也与智商降低有关。在缺铁的注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)儿童中，补充铁已被证明比安慰剂更能改善注意力，而在自闭症儿童中补充铁已被证明可以改善睡眠。
---
4. 氨和乳酸
英文原文：
Ammonia and lactic acid are initial tests that can help determine if mitochondrial dysfunction exists, which can lead to low energy production and hypotonia (low muscle tone) and is potentially treatable with supplements like coenzyme Q10 and L-carnitine.
中文翻译：
氨和乳酸是初步检查，可以帮助确定是否存在线粒体功能障碍，这可能导致低能量产生和肌张力低下，并且可以通过补充剂如辅酶Q10和左旋肉碱进行治疗。
---
5. 胆固醇
英文原文：
Cholesterol. A cholesterol count less than 145 mg/dl in typical children has been shown to increase defiance and irritability and increase the chances of school suspension by three-fold. Supplementation with cholesterol in some children with autism may be beneficial.
中文翻译：
胆固醇。在典型儿童中，胆固醇计数低于145 mg/dl已被证明会增加反抗和易怒，并将学校停学的机会增加三倍。在一些自闭症儿童中补充胆固醇可能是有益的。
---
6. 半胱氨酸
英文原文：
Cysteine is the precursor to glutathione and is the rate-limiting step for glutathione production. Low levels of cysteine reflect impaired glutathione production or increased glutathione utilization due to oxidative stress.
中文翻译：
半胱氨酸是谷胱甘肽的前体，是谷胱甘肽产生的限速步骤。低水平的半胱氨酸反映谷胱甘肽产生受损或由于氧化应激导致谷胱甘肽利用增加。
---
7. 血铅
英文原文：
Lead has been shown in some studies to contribute to autistic behaviors in some children. An elevated blood lead level reflects ongoing exposure and should prompt an investigation to find possible sources of lead in the house or environment.
中文翻译：
铅在一些研究中已被证明会导致一些儿童的自闭症行为。血铅水平升高反映持续暴露，应促使调查以发现房屋或环境中可能的铅来源。
---
8. 镁
英文原文：
Magnesium has a calming effect, and lower levels have been found in children with ADHD and autism. Magnesium supplementation can decrease hyperactivity and improve certain autistic behaviors.
中文翻译：
镁具有镇静作用，在ADHD和自闭症儿童中发现水平较低。补充镁可以减少多动并改善某些自闭症行为。
---
9. 睾酮
英文原文：
Testosterone. A small percentage of children with autism have elevated testosterone, which can lead to aggression.
中文翻译：
睾酮。一小部分自闭症儿童的睾酮升高，这可能导致攻击行为。
---
10. 有机酸面板(OAT)
英文原文：
The organic acid panel (OAT) is a specialized test that can measure markers of yeast, Clostridia, and other markers such as vitamin levels and mitochondrial function.
中文翻译：
有机酸面板(OAT)是一种专门的测试，可以测量酵母、梭菌和其他标志物如维生素水平和线粒体功能的标志物。
---
11. 尿卟啉
英文原文：
Urinary porphyrin concentrations can reflect increased heavy metal or pesticide levels in the kidney and are markers of the metal burden in the body.
中文翻译：
尿卟啉浓度可以反映肾脏中重金属或农药水平升高，是体内金属负荷的标志物。
---
12. 尿新蝶呤
英文原文：
Urinary neopterin is a marker of inflammation and tends to reflect autoimmunity in some children with autism. Elevated neopterin often predicts positive responses to anti-inflammatory treatments.
中文翻译：
尿新蝶呤是炎症的标志物，在一些自闭症儿童中往往反映自身免疫。新蝶呤升高通常预示对抗炎治疗的积极反应。
---
13. 尿氧化DNA和RNA
英文原文：
Urinary oxidized DNA and RNA are markers of oxidative stress inside the cell, and children with elevated levels often have improvements with antioxidants.
中文翻译：
尿氧化DNA和RNA是细胞内氧化应激的标志物，水平升高的儿童通常通过抗氧化剂得到改善。
---
14. 尿异前列腺素
英文原文：
Urinary isoprostane is a marker of oxidative stress outside the cell. Again, antioxidants can be helpful when this is elevated.
中文翻译：
尿异前列腺素是细胞外氧化应激的标志物。同样，当它升高时，抗氧化剂可能有帮助。
---
15. 粪便检测
英文原文：
Stool testing can check for the presence of inflammation, dysbiosis (increased levels of yeast and abnormal bacteria), digestion, and absorption.
中文翻译：
粪便检测可以检查炎症、菌群失调（酵母和异常细菌水平增加）、消化和吸收的存在。
---
初始治疗
英文原文：
There are certain treatments that parents can use to help improve certain behaviors in children with autism (and ADHD). The ideal treatment would be one that is well-studied, proven to be effective compared to a placebo, not too expensive, safe and tolerable, and can be done at home. Not many nutritional supplements fit into this category but several do. Many of these supplements are antioxidants that help to lower oxidative stress, which is a common finding in both ADHD and autism. With the use of an evidence-based medicine approach, parents can get started with some simple biomedical treatments based upon the above laboratory testing and/or the child's behaviors.
中文翻译：
有一些治疗方法父母可以用来帮助改善自闭症儿童（和ADHD）的某些行为。理想的治疗方法是研究充分、与安慰剂相比被证明有效、不太昂贵、安全可耐受、并且可以在家中进行的方法。没有多少营养补充剂符合这个类别，但有几个符合。许多这些补充剂是抗氧化剂，有助于降低氧化应激，这是ADHD和自闭症中常见的发现。通过使用循证医学方法，父母可以根据上述实验室检测和/或儿童的行为开始一些简单的生物医学治疗。
---
饮食干预
英文原文：
Diet: Several studies have shown improvements in certain autistic behaviors, such as social isolation, communication, and overall behavior, with the use of a gluten-free/casein-free diet. Food additives, colorings, and preservatives can increase hyperactivity in typical children, so avoiding these products can be helpful. In children with autism, testing for food allergies and eliminating reactive foods has been shown to improve certain autistic behaviors. An organic diet can be helpful in eliminating pesticide exposures in children. A ketogenic diet can be helpful in some children with autism. It should be noted that the use of specialized diets should be closely monitored by a physician or nutritionist.
中文翻译：
饮食：几项研究表明，使用无麸质/无酪蛋白饮食可以改善某些自闭症行为，如社交隔离、沟通和整体行为。食品添加剂、色素和防腐剂会增加典型儿童的多动，因此避免这些产品可能有帮助。在自闭症儿童中，检测食物过敏并消除反应性食物已被证明可以改善某些自闭症行为。有机饮食可以帮助消除儿童的农药暴露。生酮饮食对一些自闭症儿童可能有帮助。应该注意的是，特殊饮食的使用应由医生或营养师密切监测。
---
睡眠改善
英文原文：
Sleep: If this is a problem, I usually start with trying to improve sleep because autistic behaviors are usually worsened with sleep deprivation. One recent study revealed a defect in the ASMT gene that resulted in less melatonin production in some children with autism (this defect was also found in some of the parents). Several studies have shown improvement in sleep with the use of melatonin in autism and ADHD. Melatonin at doses of 1-3 mg at bedtime is safe.
中文翻译：
睡眠：如果这是一个问题，我通常从改善睡眠开始，因为自闭症行为通常会因睡眠剥夺而恶化。一项最近的研究揭示了ASMT基因的缺陷，导致一些自闭症儿童褪黑素产生减少（这种缺陷也在一些父母中发现）。几项研究表明，在自闭症和ADHD中使用褪黑素可以改善睡眠。睡前1-3毫克的褪黑素是安全的。
---
营养补充剂推荐
1. 多种维生素
英文原文：
Multivitamin: A general moderate-dose multivitamin has been shown to improve sleep and gastrointestinal problems in children with autism when compared to a placebo.
中文翻译：
多种维生素：与安慰剂相比，一般中等剂量的多种维生素已被证明可以改善自闭症儿童的睡眠和胃肠道问题。
---
2. 维生素C
英文原文：
Vitamin C: In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study, vitamin C (about 100 mg/kg) was shown to reduce stereotypical behavior (stimming) in individuals with autism compared to a placebo.
中文翻译：
维生素C：在一项双盲安慰剂对照研究中，维生素C（约100毫克/公斤）已被证明比安慰剂更能减少自闭症个体的刻板行为（自我刺激）。
---
3. 甲钴胺和亚叶酸
英文原文：
Methylcobalamin and folinic acid: Two studies have reported some improvements in certain autistic behaviors with the use of subcutaneous methylcobalamin injections (75 mcg/kg, requires a prescription) and oral supplementation of folinic acid (400 mcg twice a day). Methylcobalamin can also be given orally.
中文翻译：
甲钴胺和亚叶酸：两项研究报告称，使用皮下甲钴胺注射（75微克/公斤，需要处方）和口服亚叶酸补充（每天两次，每次400微克）可以改善某些自闭症行为。甲钴胺也可以口服。
---
4. 锌
英文原文：
Zinc: Deficiency has been correlated with inattention in children with ADHD. Zinc deficiency has also been reported in autism. In one study of 400 children, the use of zinc sulfate (150 mg/day that provided 40 mg/day of elemental zinc) was shown to improve ADHD symptoms compared to a placebo.
中文翻译：
锌：缺锌与ADHD儿童的注意力不集中有关。自闭症中也有锌缺乏的报告。在一项400名儿童的研究中，使用硫酸锌（每天150毫克，提供每天40毫克元素锌）已被证明比安慰剂更能改善ADHD症状。
---
5. 镁和维生素B6
英文原文：
Magnesium and vitamin B-6: The use of these (given together) has been shown to improve autistic behaviors, including social interaction, communication, and stereotypical behaviors, and improve hyperactivity in some children. Typical doses are: magnesium at 6 mg/kg/day and vitamin B-6 at 0.6 mg/kg/day; sometimes higher doses are used under physician supervision.
中文翻译：
镁和维生素B6：使用这些（一起服用）已被证明可以改善自闭症行为，包括社交互动、沟通和刻板行为，并改善一些儿童的多动。典型剂量是：镁每天6毫克/公斤，维生素B6每天0.6毫克/公斤；有时在医生监督下使用更高剂量。
---
6. 碧容健(Pycnogenol)
英文原文：
Pycnogenol: This has been shown to increase glutathione levels in children with ADHD, decrease oxidative stress, and improve attention, coordination, concentration, and hyperactivity compared to a placebo. A typical dose is 1-2 mg/kg/day.
中文翻译：
碧容健：这已被证明可以增加ADHD儿童的谷胱甘肽水平，减少氧化应激，并改善注意力、协调性、专注力和多动，与安慰剂相比。典型剂量是每天1-2毫克/公斤。
---
7. 肉碱
英文原文：
Carnitine: Deficiency has been described in some children with autism and can impair mitochondrial function. In one study of children with Rett syndrome, L-carnitine significantly improved sleep efficiency, energy level, and communication. Carnitine has also been shown to improve attention and aggression in children with ADHD as well as lessen hyperactivity. Generally, we use 50-100 mg/kg/day of L-carnitine or Acetyl-L-carnitine (preferring the latter as it penetrates into the brain better).
中文翻译：
肉碱：一些自闭症儿童被描述存在缺乏，可能会损害线粒体功能。在一项关于Rett综合征儿童的研究中，左旋肉碱显著改善了睡眠效率、能量水平和沟通。肉碱也被证明可以改善ADHD儿童的注意力和攻击性，以及减轻多动。通常，我们使用每天50-100毫克/公斤的左旋肉碱或乙酰左旋肉碱（更喜欢后者，因为它更好地渗透到大脑中）。
---
8. 肌肽
英文原文：
Carnosine: This has strong antioxidant properties and also has been shown to decrease seizure activity. In one study, L-carnosine (400 mg twice a day) improved speech and social behavior compared to a placebo in children with autism.
中文翻译：
肌肽：这具有很强的抗氧化特性，也被证明可以减少癫痫活动。在一项研究中，左旋肌肽（每天两次，每次400毫克）比安慰剂更能改善自闭症儿童的言语和社交行为。
---
9. Omega-3脂肪酸
英文原文：
Omega-3 fatty acids: Deficiency has been shown to increase hyperactivity, conduct problems, anxiety, and temper tantrums in typical children. Infants not receiving omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in breast milk or infant formula are about 2-4 times more likely to develop autism. Several studies have demonstrated improvements with the use of omega-3 fatty acids in children with developmental coordination disorder, ADHD, and autism. Omega-3 fatty acids can also have anti-seizure effects. I usually recommend about 800 mg of EPA and 800 mg of DHA (sometimes higher), which is the approximate dose used in a recent double-blind placebo-controlled study of children with autism showing improvements in hyperactivity and stereotypical behavior. I also generally recommend starting antioxidants before omega-3 fatty acid supplementation.
中文翻译：
Omega-3脂肪酸：缺乏已被证明会增加典型儿童的多动、行为问题、焦虑和发脾气。没有在母乳或婴儿配方奶粉中接受Omega-3脂肪酸补充的婴儿患自闭症的可能性大约高2-4倍。几项研究证明，在发育协调障碍、ADHD和自闭症儿童中使用Omega-3脂肪酸可以改善症状。Omega-3脂肪酸也可以有抗癫痫作用。我通常推荐大约800毫克的EPA和800毫克的DHA（有时更高），这是一项最近的双盲安慰剂对照研究中使用的大约剂量，显示自闭症儿童的多动和刻板行为有改善。我也通常建议在Omega-3脂肪酸补充之前开始抗氧化剂。
---
抗氧化剂和其他补充剂剂量表
补充剂推荐剂量
维生素C (Vitamin C)100 mg/kg/天
乙酰左旋肉碱 (Acetyl-L-carnitine)50-100 mg/kg/天
左旋肌肽 (L-carnosine)200-400 mg 每天两次
碧容健 (Pycnogenol)1-2 mg/kg/天
甲钴胺注射 (Methylcobalamin injections)75 mcg/kg 每周2-3次
亚叶酸 (Folinic acid)400 mcg 每天两次
Omega-3脂肪酸约800 mg/天 EPA + 约800 mg/天 DHA
锌 (Zinc)20-40 mg/天 元素锌
褪黑素 (Melatonin)1-3 mg，睡前30分钟
镁 (Magnesium)6 mg/kg/天
维生素B6 (Vitamin B-6)0.6 mg/kg/天
---
结论
英文原文：
Even though these treatments are available without a prescription, it is best to be under a physician's supervision when using these supplements and implementing significant dietary changes. Furthermore, a physician may be required to obtain certain laboratory tests and methylcobalamin injections. However, the supplements listed in this article are generally well-tolerated and can be helpful in improving certain behaviors in children with autism and ADHD. I would recommend sitting down with your child's physician to discuss these potential treatment options. May God bless you and your child as you journey together towards improvements and, I pray, eventual healing.
中文翻译：
尽管这些治疗不需要处方就可以获得，但在使用这些补充剂和实施重大饮食改变时，最好在医生的监督下进行。此外，可能需要医生来获得某些实验室检查和甲钴胺注射。然而，本文列出的补充剂通常耐受性良好，可以帮助改善自闭症和ADHD儿童的某些行为。我建议您与孩子的医生坐下来讨论这些潜在的治疗选择。愿上帝祝福您和您的孩子，在您共同走向改善的旅程中，我祈祷最终能够康复。
---
参考文献
1. Whiteley, P., et al., A gluten-free diet as an intervention for autism and associated spectrum disorders: preliminary findings. Autism, 1999. 3(1): p. 45.
2. Mousain-Bosc, M., et al., Improvement of neurobehavioral disorders in children supplemented with magnesium-vitamin B6. II. Pervasive developmental disorder.
3. Arnold, L.E., et al., Serum zinc correlates with parent- and teacher-rated inattention in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
[本文完]
转载自 The Autism File | www.autismfile.com
页:
[1]